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কংগ্রেস একটি রাজবংশ-চালিত দল বলে প্রায়শ আক্রমণ করে থাকে প্রতিপক্ষ বিজেপি। আর এবার গান্ধী পরিবারই নির্বাচন থেকে দূরে থাকার সিদ্ধান্ত নিয়েছে। ১৯৯৮ সালে সোনিয়া গান্ধীকে সভাপতি করার জন্য পদত্যাগ করেছিলেন সীতারাম কেশরী। এরপর ২৪ বছর পর অ-গান্ধী সভাপতি পাচ্ছে কংগ্রেস। ভারতের স্বাধীনতা সংগ্রামে উল্লেখযোগ্য ভূমিকা রাখা দলটিতে গান্ধী পরিবারের বাইরে ১১ জন সভাপতি ছিলে একজন প্রত্যক্ষদর্শী সাংবাদিক জানান, শহরটির ওরেখোভো গাড়ি বাজারের মাটিতে বা গাড়ির ভেতরে এখনো মৃতদেহগুলো পড়ে আছে। ক্ষেপণাস্ত্রের আঘাতে বাজারের গাড়ির দুটি লাইনের কাছে একটি গর্ত তৈরি হয়েছে। জাপোরিঝজিয়ায় ইউক্রেনীয় গভর্নর টেলিগ্রামে লিখেছেন, এ পর্যন্ত ২৩ জন নিহত ও ২৮ জন আহত হয়েছে। সবাই বেসামরিক। ক্ষেপণাস্ত্রের বিস্ফোরণে চারদিকে ধ্বংসাবশেষ ছড়িয়ে ছিটিয়ে পড়ে, শার্পনেলের আঘাতে গাড়িগুলো ঝাঁঝড়া হয়ে যায়। বহরের অধিকাংশ গাড়ি ও তিনটি মাইক্রোবাসের জানালা উড়ে যায়। পুলিশ ও জরুরি বিভাগের কর্মীরা হতাহতদের সরিয়ে নিতে ঘটনাস্থলে উপস্থিত হন। কংগ্রেস একটি রাজবংশ-চালিত দল বলে প্রায়শ আক্রমণ করে থাকে প্রতিপক্ষ বিজেপি। আর এবার গান্ধী পরিবারই নির্বাচন থেকে দূরে থাকার সিদ্ধান্ত নিয়েছে। ১৯৯৮ সালে সোনিয়া গান্ধীকে সভাপতি করার জন্য পদত্যাগ করেছিলেন সীতারাম কেশরী। এরপর ২৪ বছর পর অ-গান্ধী সভাপতি পাচ্ছে কংগ্রেস। ভারতের স্বাধীনতা সংগ্রামে উল্লেখযোগ্য ভূমিকা রাখা দলটিতে গান্ধী পরিবারের বাইরে ১১ জন সভাপতি ছিলে একজন প্রত্যক্ষদর্শী সাংবাদিক জানান, শহরটির ওরেখোভো গাড়ি বাজারের মাটিতে বা গাড়ির ভেতরে এখনো মৃতদেহগুলো পড়ে আছে। ক্ষেপণাস্ত্রের আঘাতে বাজারের গাড়ির দুটি লাইনের কাছে একটি গর্ত তৈরি হয়েছে। জাপোরিঝজিয়ায় ইউক্রেনীয় গভর্নর টেলিগ্রামে লিখেছেন, এ পর্যন্ত ২৩ জন নিহত ও ২৮ জন আহত হয়েছে। সবাই বেসামরিক। ক্ষেপণাস্ত্রের বিস্ফোরণে চারদিকে ধ্বংসাবশেষ ছড়িয়ে ছিটিয়ে পড়ে, শার্পনেলের আঘাতে গাড়িগুলো ঝাঁঝড়া হয়ে যায়। বহরের অধিকাংশ গাড়ি ও তিনটি মাইক্রোবাসের জানালা উড়ে যায়। পুলিশ ও জরুরি বিভাগের কর্মীরা হতাহতদের সরিয়ে নিতে ঘটনাস্থলে উপস্থিত হন। On 12 April 2022, Sunak was issued with a fixed penalty notice after the Metropolitan Police believed he had breached COVID lockdown restrictions by attending a birthday রয়টার্স জানিয়েছে, গাড়িগুলো আরোহীদের জিনিসপত্র, কম্বল ও সুইকেসে ভরা ছিল। হলুদ রঙের একটি গাড়ির চালকের আসনে বসা এক ব্যক্তির মৃতদেহ কাত হয়ে যাত্রীর আসনে পড়ে আছে, তার বাম হাত তখনও গাড়ির স্টিয়ারিং হুইল ধরে আছে। Litterfall is characterized as fresh, undecomposed, and easily recognizable (by species and type) plant debris. This can be anything from leaves, cones, needles, twigs, bark, seeds/nuts, logs, or reproductive organs (e.g. the stamen of flowering plants). Items larger than 2 cm diameter are referred to as coarse litter, while anything smaller is referred to as fine litter or litter. The type of litterfall is most directly affected by ecosystem type. For example, leaf tissues account for about 70 percent of litterfall in forests, but woody litter tends to increase with forest age.[2] In grasslands, there is very little aboveground perennial tissue so the annual litterfall is very low and quite nearly equal to the net primary production.[3] In soil science, soil litter is classified in three layers, which form on the surface of the O Horizon. These are the L, F, and H layers:[4] L – organic horizon characterized by relatively undecomposed plant material (described above). F – organic horizon found beneath L characterized by accumulation of partly decomposed organic matter. H – organic horizon below F characterized by accumulation of fully decomposed organic matter mostly indiscernible The litter layer is quite variable in its thickness, decomposition rate and nutrient content and is affected in part by seasonality, plant species, climate, soil fertility, elevation, and latitude.[1] The most extreme variability of litterfall is seen as a function of seasonality; each individual species of plant has seasonal losses of certain parts of its body, which can be determined by the collection and classification of plant litterfall throughout the year, and in turn affects the thickness of the litter layer. In tropical environments, the largest amount of debris falls in the latter part of dry seasons and early during wet season.[5] As a result of this variability due to seasons, the decomposition rate for any given area will also be variable. Litter fall in the North American Baldcypress Swamp Network, Illinois to Louisiana, 2003[6] Latitude also has a strong effect on litterfall rates and thickness. Specifically, litterfall declines with increasing latitude. In tropical rainforests, there is a thin litter layer due to the rapid decomposition,[7] while in boreal forests, the rate of decomposition is slower and leads to the accumulation of a thick litter layer, also known as a mor.[3] Net primary production works inversely to this trend, suggesting that the accumulation of organic matter is mainly a result of decomposition rate. Surface detritus facilitates the capture and infiltration of rainwater into lower soil layers. Soil litter protects soil aggregates from raindrop impact, preventing the release of clay and silt particles from plugging soil pores.[8] Releasing clay and silt particles reduces the capacity for soil to absorb water and increases cross surface flow, accelerating soil erosion. In addition soil litter reduces wind erosion by preventing soil from losing moisture and providing cover preventing soil transportation. Organic matter accumulation also helps protect soils from wildfire damage. Soil litter can be completely removed depending on intensity and severity of wildfires and season.[9] Regions with high frequency wildfires have reduced vegetation density and reduced soil litter accumulation. Climate also influences the depth of plant litter. Typically humid tropical and sub-tropical climates have reduced organic matter layers and horizons due to year-round decomposition and high vegetation density and growth. In temperate and cold climates, litter tends to accumulate and decompose slower due to a shorter growing season. Net primary productivity Net primary production and litterfall are intimately connected. In every terrestrial ecosystem, the largest fraction of all net primary production is lost to herbivores and litter fall.[citation needed] Due to their interconnectedness, global patterns of litterfall are similar to global patterns of net primary productivity.[3] Plant litter, which can be made up of fallen leaves, twigs, seeds, flowers, and other woody debris, makes up a large portion of above ground net primary production of all terrestrial ecosystems. Fungus plays a large role in cycling the nutrients from the plant litter back into the ecosystem. [10] Habitat and food Litter provides habitat for a variety of organisms. Plants Common wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) in Ivanovo Oblast, Russia Certain plants are specially adapted for germinating and thriving in the litter layers. For example, bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) shoots puncture the layer to emerge in spring. Some plants with rhizomes, such as common wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) do well in this habitat.[7] Detritivores and other decomposers Fungi in the forest floor (Marselisborg Forests in Denmark) A skink, Eutropis multifasciata, in leaf litter in Sabah, Malaysia Many organisms that live on the forest floor are decomposers, such as fungi. Organisms whose diet consists of plant detritus, such as earthworms, are termed detritivores. The community of decomposers in the litter layer also includes bacteria, amoeba, nematodes, rotifer, tardigrades, springtails, cryptostigmata, potworms, insect larvae, mollusks, oribatid mites, woodlice, and millipedes.[7] Even some species of microcrustaceans, especially copepods (for instance Bryocyclops spp., Graeteriella spp.,Olmeccyclops hondo, Moraria spp.,Bryocamptus spp., Atheyella spp.)[11] live in moist leaf litter habitats and play an important role as predators and decomposers.[12] The consumption of the litterfall by decomposers results in the breakdown of simple carbon compounds into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), and releases inorganic ions (like nitrogen and phosphorus) into the soil where the surrounding plants can then reabsorb the nutrients that were shed as litterfall. In this way, litterfall becomes an important part of the nutrient cycle that sustains forest environments. As litter decomposes, nutrients are released into the environment. The portion of the litter that is not readily decomposable is known as humus. Litter aids in soil moisture retention by cooling the ground surface and holding moisture in decaying organic matter. The flora and fauna working to decompose soil litter also aid in soil respiration. A litter layer of decomposing biomass provides a continuous energy source for macro- and micro-organisms.[13]
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